Survival Introduction
03-11-2009, 10:58 AM
#1
Spike
Thread Starter
Join Date: Mar 2009
Location:
Posts: 18
Survival Introduction
Survival introduction
The definition of survival is to continue to exist - or to come out of a situation alive. Fortunately (or unfortunately) there are few places left in South Africa where survival is an issue but it is still a field of study which evokes much interest. It is a 'just in case' subject but, if the time comes to use it, you will be very glad to have the knowledge. In the Bushveld there is always a chance that you might get lost in a remote area, with no one close by to help.
Survival also gives a good insight into why animals do what they do, how their movement patterns work and why they eat what they eat. Animals are on a permanent survival course.
All told, survival boils down to two major components—water and food. No less interesting are aspects such as shelter, navigation, movement, improvization techniques, snares and fire- and campsite selection. Before setting out on a walking safari be sure to let your friends or family know your plans, routes and destination as well as your likely time schedule.
Potential dangers in a survival situation are:
•Dehydration
•Starvation
•Drowning
•Carnivores
•Heat or cold in excess
•Venomous animals
•Allergies and injury
•Poisoning
•Sickness and disease
Dehydration
The following are some natural and unnatural indicators as to the location of water:
•Local knowledge of an area, such as the location of a major river.
•Land form: valleys/depressions which lead to water; always move downhill.
•Plant growth, such as dark green belts of vegetation.
•Old windmills, which may be seen from an elevated point.
•Annual and bird habits, which requires more knowledge than the above.
Some examples of allinial indicators are:
•The presence of guineafowl. These birds drink daily at dusk; listen for their calls in the morning or watch when they fly to or from their night's roost in a tree.
•Kudu and blesbok can also help us as these animals drink daily and usually move to water in the late afternoon.
•White rhinoceros, buffalo and elephant also drink daily.
•Sable antelope are usually at water in the mid- to late morning, between 9am to 11am.
•Predator kills, particularly lion, often help too. Track the movement of these animals after a kill, as they like to drink after eating so the spoor usually leads to water. Be careful not to walk into the lion though.
•During summer, swallows and swifts aggregate over water in the late afternoon and at dusk, to catch swarming insects and to drink.
•African snipes drum over water and vleis in the Late afternoon and early evening during the late winter. The drumming sound is made by the fanned tail during a dive. This drumming usually happens in the winter months.
•Marsh owls and Marsh harriers are usually found in vlei areas.
•Wattled and Blacksmith lapwings are always close to water.
•Impala have a feeding range of not more than 2km from water, and zebra up to 8km from water.
•Warthogs and rhinoceroses wallow regularly; if you see an animal with wet mud on its body use its tracks to back-track to locate water.
•Doves move to water singly, but due to allelomimetic (group behavioural mimicry) behaviour they fly away together, simultaneously. Therefore a flock of doves is usually flying away from a water source and a single one is potentially flying to the water.
•Saudgrouse collect water in their breast feathers in hot weather while nesting to cool the eggs and for giving the chicks water to drink once they have hatched. if you see a Sandgrouse flying hack and forth in a set direction it may lead you to or from water.
•Game trails link together on the way to water. Follow the merged trails direction and you should eventually arrive at water. Animals disperse as they move away from water to graze or browse. This method is very useful in areas with plenty of game.
The definition of survival is to continue to exist - or to come out of a situation alive. Fortunately (or unfortunately) there are few places left in South Africa where survival is an issue but it is still a field of study which evokes much interest. It is a 'just in case' subject but, if the time comes to use it, you will be very glad to have the knowledge. In the Bushveld there is always a chance that you might get lost in a remote area, with no one close by to help.
Survival also gives a good insight into why animals do what they do, how their movement patterns work and why they eat what they eat. Animals are on a permanent survival course.
All told, survival boils down to two major components—water and food. No less interesting are aspects such as shelter, navigation, movement, improvization techniques, snares and fire- and campsite selection. Before setting out on a walking safari be sure to let your friends or family know your plans, routes and destination as well as your likely time schedule.
Potential dangers in a survival situation are:
•Dehydration
•Starvation
•Drowning
•Carnivores
•Heat or cold in excess
•Venomous animals
•Allergies and injury
•Poisoning
•Sickness and disease
Dehydration
The following are some natural and unnatural indicators as to the location of water:
•Local knowledge of an area, such as the location of a major river.
•Land form: valleys/depressions which lead to water; always move downhill.
•Plant growth, such as dark green belts of vegetation.
•Old windmills, which may be seen from an elevated point.
•Annual and bird habits, which requires more knowledge than the above.
Some examples of allinial indicators are:
•The presence of guineafowl. These birds drink daily at dusk; listen for their calls in the morning or watch when they fly to or from their night's roost in a tree.
•Kudu and blesbok can also help us as these animals drink daily and usually move to water in the late afternoon.
•White rhinoceros, buffalo and elephant also drink daily.
•Sable antelope are usually at water in the mid- to late morning, between 9am to 11am.
•Predator kills, particularly lion, often help too. Track the movement of these animals after a kill, as they like to drink after eating so the spoor usually leads to water. Be careful not to walk into the lion though.
•During summer, swallows and swifts aggregate over water in the late afternoon and at dusk, to catch swarming insects and to drink.
•African snipes drum over water and vleis in the Late afternoon and early evening during the late winter. The drumming sound is made by the fanned tail during a dive. This drumming usually happens in the winter months.
•Marsh owls and Marsh harriers are usually found in vlei areas.
•Wattled and Blacksmith lapwings are always close to water.
•Impala have a feeding range of not more than 2km from water, and zebra up to 8km from water.
•Warthogs and rhinoceroses wallow regularly; if you see an animal with wet mud on its body use its tracks to back-track to locate water.
•Doves move to water singly, but due to allelomimetic (group behavioural mimicry) behaviour they fly away together, simultaneously. Therefore a flock of doves is usually flying away from a water source and a single one is potentially flying to the water.
•Saudgrouse collect water in their breast feathers in hot weather while nesting to cool the eggs and for giving the chicks water to drink once they have hatched. if you see a Sandgrouse flying hack and forth in a set direction it may lead you to or from water.
•Game trails link together on the way to water. Follow the merged trails direction and you should eventually arrive at water. Animals disperse as they move away from water to graze or browse. This method is very useful in areas with plenty of game.
03-15-2009, 08:20 AM
#2
Spike
Thread Starter
Join Date: Mar 2009
Location:
Posts: 18
RE: Survival Introduction
Edible plants
If you are uncertain of the identification of a plant it should not be used as many species listed here have similar toxic counterparts. You may be allergic to certain plants so be careful and never eat too much of any one final plant.
Babiana hypogea
Baboon Onion
Preparation—the tubers are scraped clean and eaten raw or boiled as vegetables.
Bidens pilosa
Black jack
Preparation—young leaves and shoots are lightly boiled and when soft, peanut butter (if available) is melted into the remaining liquid to add taste. The leaves are then returned to the pot, stirred well. Add a little salt or potash. They are served as a relish. The leaves can also be dried.
Larissa bispinos a
Num num, or Y-Thorn
Preparation—the leaves and shoots are cooked as a spinach. When picked they have an unpleasant smell which disappears with boiling. Add a little salt or potash just before serving. The soft, shiny product is easily digestible, but does not mix well with groundnuts. It is used as a relish for children and invalids, The whole plant soaked in water can be used as a shampoo and a soap substitute,
Dicerocarywn eriocarpum
Boot Protector
Preparation—the leaves are edible, cooked as spinach.
Euelea Crispa
Blue Guarri
Preparation—the fruits are pleasantly sweet and are eaten or chewed fresh.
Lablab purpureus uncinatus
Lablab Bean
Preparation—the hard beans take up to eight hours to boil, but should be soaked first. The young beans are cooked in their skin, older ones with the skin removed. Occasionally they are boiled twice and then a third time with maize. Another method is to roast the beans, pound and grind them finely, winnow to remove skin particles and boil the pea flour. Young leaves can be cooked as a relish. They must be boiled for a long time to destroy the poisonous lectins.
Lantana caninra
Common Lantana
Preparation—the fruits are edible.
Lantana rugosa
Bird's Brandy
Fruits are edible and a light purple in colour.
Lannea edulis
Wild Grape
Preparation—the fruit is eaten raw, by squeezing out the pulp and discarding the bitter skin; the mature fruit has a grape-like flavour. The young roots are also edible but must be cooked first. The darker fruits are tastier.
Oxalis obliquifolia
Sorrel
Preparation—all parts of the plant are salty and are chewed to relieve thirst. In small quantities, well washed and drained, the leaves are used as potherbs and garnishes. Too much should not be eaten due to the salts present.
Tricliceras longipedunculata
Lion's Eye
Preparation—the young leaves are cooked as spinach. The stems are discarded and the leaves pounded a little to soften them before cooking with a little salt or potash added.
Zornia milneana
Zornia
Preparation—the leaves are commonly used as a cooked spinach but are somewhat dry in texture. They require potash for softening and peanut butter, onions and tomatoes (if available) to improve the flavour.
Fadogia tetrequerta
Tick Bush
Preparation—fruit is edible directly from plant.
Lippia javanica
Fever Tea
Preparation—the leaves are infused or brewed to make an aromatic herbal tea. The flavour is similar to mint or vanilla.
Myrotheninus flabellifolius
Resurrection Bush
Preparation—the leaves are infused in boiling water to make an aromatic herbal tea.
Opuntia Ficus—Indica
Prickly Pear
Preparation—the spines are removed by rolling the fruit in the sand before peeling. The sweet flesh is eaten whole, including the seeds. It is particularly delicious when eaten very cold. The pears may be sliced and sun-dried for use out of season. Prickly Pear syrup is made by mincing the peeled fruit and boiling until as thick as honey. No sweetening is required.
Nymphae caerulea
Water Lily
Preparation—the tuber is scraped clean of fibre, well washed, boiled and roasted as a vegetable, but this is 'famine food' as it is spongy and rather tasteless. The flattened head of the flower, with the bracts renewed, is also edible. The seeds, well pounded to meal, can be cooked as porridge.
Trees with food value
Grewia flava
Brandy Bush
Preparation—fruits are eaten fresh or sun-dried and ground to a powder, to be mixed with dried locusts as a delicacy.
Grewia inonticola
Silver Raisin
Preparation—the berries are eaten, stones and all. They are rather dry but sweet when chewed. They can also be sun-dried and ground into a meal for making porridge. Fried in 'rich oil' they are said to have been a favourite Bushman dish, When fermented they make a potent beer. .
Acacia karoo
Sweet Thorn
Preparation—the tree oozes a clear red-gold gum, used for chewing. The seeds are a coffee substitute, roasted and ground time.
Spine leafed Monkey Orange
Preparation—ripe yellow-brown fruits are thrown onto the ground to crack their hard shells. It is customary to eat the fruit on the spot, using a piece of shell as a spoon, rather than unwashed Fingers. The pulp is fairly tasty, but not as good as the Corky Bark Monkey )range. The seeds are refreshing to suck, kept in the mouth for time but not swallowed as they are potentially poisonous. The sweet ripe pulp tiny be scraped from the seeds and sun-dried as a food reserve. Sometimes the pulp is mixed into maize porridge. The unripe fruit is poisonous.
Strychnos cocculoides
Corky Bark Monkey Orange
Preparation—the fruit can be picked green and buried in sand and left until the pulp has completely liquefied, forming a local delicacy. The fruit straight front the tree is very good to eat.
Englemphyturn rnagalismontanum
Milk Plum
Preparation—the fruits are sweet-tasting and are sought after, but are rather spoiled by the sticky white latex. The fruit pulp, cut from the stone. makes a good jam or, jelly. The pulp can be fermented and used as an alcoholic drink (mampoer.). It was at one time also widely used on farms to make vinegar.
Boscia albitrunea
Shepherd's Tree
Preparation—the fruit is pounded to remove the seed and the sweet pulp is mixed with milk as a side dish. The roots are dried, ground to a meal, sieved and mixed with other cereals. The young roots are roasted and ground fine as a coffee substitute. Roots, with the bark having been scraped off, are boiled slowly For several hours to make sweet tasting syrup. Young roots, scraped and sun-dried, can he ground to make a thin gruel by boiling with water, The flower buds may he pickled in vinegar and used as capers.
Diospyros lyciodes
Blue Bush
Preparation—the ripe red fruit is eaten fresh, the soft pulp having the taste of guavas. It can be used fir making a fermented drink or dried as a preserve.
Ficus sur
Broom-Cluster Fig
Preparation—the figs are eaten fresh or sun-dried, being turned frequently and flattened by hand to make a sweet preserve. They are usually riddled with small wasps and need careful cleaning. Small new leaves are gathered in early spring and boiled with salt or potash as a spinach.
Ficus harkei
Common Wild Fig
Preparation—the figs are eaten fresh or sun-dried, being turned frequently. They can be flattened by hand to make a sweet preserve. They are usually riddled with small wasps and need careful cleaning. Small new leaves are gathered in early spring and boiled with salt or potash as a spinach.
Lannea discolor
Live-Long Tree
Preparation—the fruits are eaten fresh, the grape-like pulp being squeezed out of the bitter hard skin, which is then discarded.
Mimusops zeyheri
Red-Milkwood or Moepel
Preparation—the fruit is edible, eaten fresh. It is sticky unless really ripe, when it has a mealie-meal consistency, and is pleasantly sweet. Unripe fruit is more bitter and dry.
Pappea capensis
Jacket Plum
Preparation—the fruits are pleasant-tasting eaten fresh or made into a refreshing drink or vinegar. They are also fermented to make wine. The seed produces a rich golden-yellow, non-drying oil which can be used for cooking, although it is slightly purgative.
Sclerocarya birrea
Marula
Preparation—the ripe fruit falls to the ground and is collected by the basketful. It can be eaten fresh or dried, but it is astringent cateit raw. It can lie used to make a traditional drink and a tasty jelly, or the pulp can he mixed with a cereal or maize porridge.
Marula juice- the ripe fruit is left to soak in cold water, or pimnded to remove the stone. The pulp is put into a dosed pot, the mixture being half pulp and half water. It is left to ferment over night, ready for drinking the next day.
Syzigium cordatum
Waterberry
Preparation—the fruits are sweet and plentiful. They are enjoyed fresh and are made into a fruit drink, being stamped or broken open and left to stand in water for sonic hours. The drink becomes alcoholic if the fruit is allowed to ferment for three or four days before the liquid is strained off the pulp.
Syzygium guineense
Water Pear
Preparations—the fruits are edible.
If you are uncertain of the identification of a plant it should not be used as many species listed here have similar toxic counterparts. You may be allergic to certain plants so be careful and never eat too much of any one final plant.
Babiana hypogea
Baboon Onion
Preparation—the tubers are scraped clean and eaten raw or boiled as vegetables.
Bidens pilosa
Black jack
Preparation—young leaves and shoots are lightly boiled and when soft, peanut butter (if available) is melted into the remaining liquid to add taste. The leaves are then returned to the pot, stirred well. Add a little salt or potash. They are served as a relish. The leaves can also be dried.
Larissa bispinos a
Num num, or Y-Thorn
Preparation—the leaves and shoots are cooked as a spinach. When picked they have an unpleasant smell which disappears with boiling. Add a little salt or potash just before serving. The soft, shiny product is easily digestible, but does not mix well with groundnuts. It is used as a relish for children and invalids, The whole plant soaked in water can be used as a shampoo and a soap substitute,
Dicerocarywn eriocarpum
Boot Protector
Preparation—the leaves are edible, cooked as spinach.
Euelea Crispa
Blue Guarri
Preparation—the fruits are pleasantly sweet and are eaten or chewed fresh.
Lablab purpureus uncinatus
Lablab Bean
Preparation—the hard beans take up to eight hours to boil, but should be soaked first. The young beans are cooked in their skin, older ones with the skin removed. Occasionally they are boiled twice and then a third time with maize. Another method is to roast the beans, pound and grind them finely, winnow to remove skin particles and boil the pea flour. Young leaves can be cooked as a relish. They must be boiled for a long time to destroy the poisonous lectins.
Lantana caninra
Common Lantana
Preparation—the fruits are edible.
Lantana rugosa
Bird's Brandy
Fruits are edible and a light purple in colour.
Lannea edulis
Wild Grape
Preparation—the fruit is eaten raw, by squeezing out the pulp and discarding the bitter skin; the mature fruit has a grape-like flavour. The young roots are also edible but must be cooked first. The darker fruits are tastier.
Oxalis obliquifolia
Sorrel
Preparation—all parts of the plant are salty and are chewed to relieve thirst. In small quantities, well washed and drained, the leaves are used as potherbs and garnishes. Too much should not be eaten due to the salts present.
Tricliceras longipedunculata
Lion's Eye
Preparation—the young leaves are cooked as spinach. The stems are discarded and the leaves pounded a little to soften them before cooking with a little salt or potash added.
Zornia milneana
Zornia
Preparation—the leaves are commonly used as a cooked spinach but are somewhat dry in texture. They require potash for softening and peanut butter, onions and tomatoes (if available) to improve the flavour.
Fadogia tetrequerta
Tick Bush
Preparation—fruit is edible directly from plant.
Lippia javanica
Fever Tea
Preparation—the leaves are infused or brewed to make an aromatic herbal tea. The flavour is similar to mint or vanilla.
Myrotheninus flabellifolius
Resurrection Bush
Preparation—the leaves are infused in boiling water to make an aromatic herbal tea.
Opuntia Ficus—Indica
Prickly Pear
Preparation—the spines are removed by rolling the fruit in the sand before peeling. The sweet flesh is eaten whole, including the seeds. It is particularly delicious when eaten very cold. The pears may be sliced and sun-dried for use out of season. Prickly Pear syrup is made by mincing the peeled fruit and boiling until as thick as honey. No sweetening is required.
Nymphae caerulea
Water Lily
Preparation—the tuber is scraped clean of fibre, well washed, boiled and roasted as a vegetable, but this is 'famine food' as it is spongy and rather tasteless. The flattened head of the flower, with the bracts renewed, is also edible. The seeds, well pounded to meal, can be cooked as porridge.
Trees with food value
Grewia flava
Brandy Bush
Preparation—fruits are eaten fresh or sun-dried and ground to a powder, to be mixed with dried locusts as a delicacy.
Grewia inonticola
Silver Raisin
Preparation—the berries are eaten, stones and all. They are rather dry but sweet when chewed. They can also be sun-dried and ground into a meal for making porridge. Fried in 'rich oil' they are said to have been a favourite Bushman dish, When fermented they make a potent beer. .
Acacia karoo
Sweet Thorn
Preparation—the tree oozes a clear red-gold gum, used for chewing. The seeds are a coffee substitute, roasted and ground time.
Spine leafed Monkey Orange
Preparation—ripe yellow-brown fruits are thrown onto the ground to crack their hard shells. It is customary to eat the fruit on the spot, using a piece of shell as a spoon, rather than unwashed Fingers. The pulp is fairly tasty, but not as good as the Corky Bark Monkey )range. The seeds are refreshing to suck, kept in the mouth for time but not swallowed as they are potentially poisonous. The sweet ripe pulp tiny be scraped from the seeds and sun-dried as a food reserve. Sometimes the pulp is mixed into maize porridge. The unripe fruit is poisonous.
Strychnos cocculoides
Corky Bark Monkey Orange
Preparation—the fruit can be picked green and buried in sand and left until the pulp has completely liquefied, forming a local delicacy. The fruit straight front the tree is very good to eat.
Englemphyturn rnagalismontanum
Milk Plum
Preparation—the fruits are sweet-tasting and are sought after, but are rather spoiled by the sticky white latex. The fruit pulp, cut from the stone. makes a good jam or, jelly. The pulp can be fermented and used as an alcoholic drink (mampoer.). It was at one time also widely used on farms to make vinegar.
Boscia albitrunea
Shepherd's Tree
Preparation—the fruit is pounded to remove the seed and the sweet pulp is mixed with milk as a side dish. The roots are dried, ground to a meal, sieved and mixed with other cereals. The young roots are roasted and ground fine as a coffee substitute. Roots, with the bark having been scraped off, are boiled slowly For several hours to make sweet tasting syrup. Young roots, scraped and sun-dried, can he ground to make a thin gruel by boiling with water, The flower buds may he pickled in vinegar and used as capers.
Diospyros lyciodes
Blue Bush
Preparation—the ripe red fruit is eaten fresh, the soft pulp having the taste of guavas. It can be used fir making a fermented drink or dried as a preserve.
Ficus sur
Broom-Cluster Fig
Preparation—the figs are eaten fresh or sun-dried, being turned frequently and flattened by hand to make a sweet preserve. They are usually riddled with small wasps and need careful cleaning. Small new leaves are gathered in early spring and boiled with salt or potash as a spinach.
Ficus harkei
Common Wild Fig
Preparation—the figs are eaten fresh or sun-dried, being turned frequently. They can be flattened by hand to make a sweet preserve. They are usually riddled with small wasps and need careful cleaning. Small new leaves are gathered in early spring and boiled with salt or potash as a spinach.
Lannea discolor
Live-Long Tree
Preparation—the fruits are eaten fresh, the grape-like pulp being squeezed out of the bitter hard skin, which is then discarded.
Mimusops zeyheri
Red-Milkwood or Moepel
Preparation—the fruit is edible, eaten fresh. It is sticky unless really ripe, when it has a mealie-meal consistency, and is pleasantly sweet. Unripe fruit is more bitter and dry.
Pappea capensis
Jacket Plum
Preparation—the fruits are pleasant-tasting eaten fresh or made into a refreshing drink or vinegar. They are also fermented to make wine. The seed produces a rich golden-yellow, non-drying oil which can be used for cooking, although it is slightly purgative.
Sclerocarya birrea
Marula
Preparation—the ripe fruit falls to the ground and is collected by the basketful. It can be eaten fresh or dried, but it is astringent cateit raw. It can lie used to make a traditional drink and a tasty jelly, or the pulp can he mixed with a cereal or maize porridge.
Marula juice- the ripe fruit is left to soak in cold water, or pimnded to remove the stone. The pulp is put into a dosed pot, the mixture being half pulp and half water. It is left to ferment over night, ready for drinking the next day.
Syzigium cordatum
Waterberry
Preparation—the fruits are sweet and plentiful. They are enjoyed fresh and are made into a fruit drink, being stamped or broken open and left to stand in water for sonic hours. The drink becomes alcoholic if the fruit is allowed to ferment for three or four days before the liquid is strained off the pulp.
Syzygium guineense
Water Pear
Preparations—the fruits are edible.
03-15-2009, 08:21 AM
#3
Spike
Thread Starter
Join Date: Mar 2009
Location:
Posts: 18
RE: Survival Introduction
Spinders
Southern Africa is home to over 64 families of spiders, representing more than 3,800
different species. These amazing creatures can be found in every kind of terrestrial habitat.
They spin intricate webs, mimic other animals and feed off a variety of prey. They are one
of the most successful predatory groups of arthropods on earth.
All spiders, except a single family, have a pair of venom glands that secrete venom.
Worldwide there are about 34,000 species of spider with only 20 or 30 species being
dangerously venomous to humans. Spiders do not target humans as prey but instead use
their venom as a defence mechanism. The primary function of venom is to immobilize
prey. As a secondary function, venom is used in defence against would-be predators.
It's well known that spiders have silk glands and spinnerets. They use these apparatus
not only to spin a web to catch prey but also to strengthen burrow walls, wrap up prey
remains, construct egg sacs, and build shelters. They are even used during courtship.
Spider silk does not consist of a single thread but is similar to a rope in structure with
many fibres making up the strand of silk.The strength and elasticity of a spider web depends
on the amount of water in the silk. Dry silk is stiff and snaps if stretched beyond 30% of its
original length. Wet silk is highly elastic and may stretch to 300% before breaking. Many
spiders use dry silk to construct the support lines in their webs and wet silk to provide the
sticky capture nets. In many cases spiders will eat their web in order to recycle the energy
used up to spin the web in the first place.
Large spiders may have unwanted guests in their webs. In many cases kleptoparasites
may be found in the webs of other spiders. These kleptoparasites do not spin their own web
nor do they capture their own prey. They simply inhabit the webs of other spiders and feed
on whatever the host has caught.
Spiders are preyed upon by various animals. Some spiders specialize in preying on their
fellow spiders. They have many physical and behavioural ways in which to evade predators.
Some species are camouflaged, not only to sneak up on prey but also to evade detection
from predators. Others break up their outline as they wait in the centre of their webs by
a very un-spider-like appearance, or by placing debris in the web, or construction of a
stabilimentum, which is often a zigzagging reinforcement in the centre of the web.
Some wasps parasitize spiders. They paralyze a spider and then place the spider in a
burrow or chamber. The wasp lays an egg on the paralyzed spider and when the wasp egg
hatches, the spider is eaten alive by the wasp larvae.
Spiders are adapted to their predatory lifestyles in some spectacular ways. They can go
without food for long periods of time. This enables them to maintain their normal activity
patterns in environments that have little prey. Many species live in specific habitats in
order to take advantage of specific prey found within that habitat. Hunting strategies
include sit-and-wait ambush tactics and deception. Their prey consists of many different
animals. Ground-dwelling species for example, feed on crawling insects and their larvae,
while spiders that construct webs often target flying prey such as locusts, flies and moths.
All stages of insects are preyed upon including the adult stage, larval stages and even the
eggs. Some spiders specialize in catching vertebrates such as small fish and tadpoles. Some
desert spiders are known to prey upon geckos.
Spiders display amazingly varied behavioural characteristics. These behaviours are
linked to their hunting strategies, courtship or social structure. Some jumping spiders
for instance mimic ants. These ant-like spiders not only look and behave like ants but-also
smell like ants. Other forms of mimicry include bird droppings, ladybirds, twigs and bark.
Some spiders even mimic other spiders in order to lure them out of their web and prey
upon them.
Many species of spiders display complex courtship rituals where the male entices the
female to mate. Courtship can include tactile behaviour such as plucking or strumming
the female's web, or may include waving of pedipalps in order to seduce the male's suitor.
Males are often very cautious during courtship. In many cases the female is substantially
larger than the male. Males often get eaten by the female but after millions of years of
evolution, many males have developed ingenious ways to avoid becoming a post-mating
snack.
Courtship among spiders can be an intricate and delicate affair. In many species,
a male will approach the female. and signal his intentions. Once the female has proved
receptive the male will approafhthe female and mate. In other species courtship is far
more complex.
Spiders represent a major influence in terrestrial habitats. Their success can be attributed
to their resilience to tough environments and their ability to exploit ecological niches that
no other creature occupies.
Many kinds of web-building spiders are distributed over large ranges while spiders that
burrow in the ground show definite preferences to specific substrate. Many spiders can be
simply identified by using their web, others can be identified by where they are found and
their behaviour. This text will allow you to identify the more common spiders that occur
in southern Africa. For the purposes of simplicity this chapter is limited to prominent and
common spiders that are easy to identify in the field. In this text the length of a spider is
taken from the f'Com of the carapace to-the end of the abdomen.
Southern Africa is home to over 64 families of spiders, representing more than 3,800
different species. These amazing creatures can be found in every kind of terrestrial habitat.
They spin intricate webs, mimic other animals and feed off a variety of prey. They are one
of the most successful predatory groups of arthropods on earth.
All spiders, except a single family, have a pair of venom glands that secrete venom.
Worldwide there are about 34,000 species of spider with only 20 or 30 species being
dangerously venomous to humans. Spiders do not target humans as prey but instead use
their venom as a defence mechanism. The primary function of venom is to immobilize
prey. As a secondary function, venom is used in defence against would-be predators.
It's well known that spiders have silk glands and spinnerets. They use these apparatus
not only to spin a web to catch prey but also to strengthen burrow walls, wrap up prey
remains, construct egg sacs, and build shelters. They are even used during courtship.
Spider silk does not consist of a single thread but is similar to a rope in structure with
many fibres making up the strand of silk.The strength and elasticity of a spider web depends
on the amount of water in the silk. Dry silk is stiff and snaps if stretched beyond 30% of its
original length. Wet silk is highly elastic and may stretch to 300% before breaking. Many
spiders use dry silk to construct the support lines in their webs and wet silk to provide the
sticky capture nets. In many cases spiders will eat their web in order to recycle the energy
used up to spin the web in the first place.
Large spiders may have unwanted guests in their webs. In many cases kleptoparasites
may be found in the webs of other spiders. These kleptoparasites do not spin their own web
nor do they capture their own prey. They simply inhabit the webs of other spiders and feed
on whatever the host has caught.
Spiders are preyed upon by various animals. Some spiders specialize in preying on their
fellow spiders. They have many physical and behavioural ways in which to evade predators.
Some species are camouflaged, not only to sneak up on prey but also to evade detection
from predators. Others break up their outline as they wait in the centre of their webs by
a very un-spider-like appearance, or by placing debris in the web, or construction of a
stabilimentum, which is often a zigzagging reinforcement in the centre of the web.
Some wasps parasitize spiders. They paralyze a spider and then place the spider in a
burrow or chamber. The wasp lays an egg on the paralyzed spider and when the wasp egg
hatches, the spider is eaten alive by the wasp larvae.
Spiders are adapted to their predatory lifestyles in some spectacular ways. They can go
without food for long periods of time. This enables them to maintain their normal activity
patterns in environments that have little prey. Many species live in specific habitats in
order to take advantage of specific prey found within that habitat. Hunting strategies
include sit-and-wait ambush tactics and deception. Their prey consists of many different
animals. Ground-dwelling species for example, feed on crawling insects and their larvae,
while spiders that construct webs often target flying prey such as locusts, flies and moths.
All stages of insects are preyed upon including the adult stage, larval stages and even the
eggs. Some spiders specialize in catching vertebrates such as small fish and tadpoles. Some
desert spiders are known to prey upon geckos.
Spiders display amazingly varied behavioural characteristics. These behaviours are
linked to their hunting strategies, courtship or social structure. Some jumping spiders
for instance mimic ants. These ant-like spiders not only look and behave like ants but-also
smell like ants. Other forms of mimicry include bird droppings, ladybirds, twigs and bark.
Some spiders even mimic other spiders in order to lure them out of their web and prey
upon them.
Many species of spiders display complex courtship rituals where the male entices the
female to mate. Courtship can include tactile behaviour such as plucking or strumming
the female's web, or may include waving of pedipalps in order to seduce the male's suitor.
Males are often very cautious during courtship. In many cases the female is substantially
larger than the male. Males often get eaten by the female but after millions of years of
evolution, many males have developed ingenious ways to avoid becoming a post-mating
snack.
Courtship among spiders can be an intricate and delicate affair. In many species,
a male will approach the female. and signal his intentions. Once the female has proved
receptive the male will approafhthe female and mate. In other species courtship is far
more complex.
Spiders represent a major influence in terrestrial habitats. Their success can be attributed
to their resilience to tough environments and their ability to exploit ecological niches that
no other creature occupies.
Many kinds of web-building spiders are distributed over large ranges while spiders that
burrow in the ground show definite preferences to specific substrate. Many spiders can be
simply identified by using their web, others can be identified by where they are found and
their behaviour. This text will allow you to identify the more common spiders that occur
in southern Africa. For the purposes of simplicity this chapter is limited to prominent and
common spiders that are easy to identify in the field. In this text the length of a spider is
taken from the f'Com of the carapace to-the end of the abdomen.
03-15-2009, 08:25 AM
#4
Spike
Thread Starter
Join Date: Mar 2009
Location:
Posts: 18
RE: Survival Introduction
Scorpions
Creepy crawlies
The Scorpiones-scorpions-are easily identified by the greatly enlarged, pincer-like
pedipalps and elongate-jointed abdomen which ends in a swollen sting. Antennae are
absent and the mouthparts are formed by small pincer-like chelicerae (fangs). There is a
central pair of dorsal eyes and two to five smaller lateral pairs of eyes on the front corner
of each side of the 'head'. There are four pairs of walking legs. These remarkable creatures
are among the most primitive groups of animals on the earth, with fossil scorpions up to
several metres long having been ,mong the dominant predators on the earth even before
the dinosaurs.
Many scorpions lack common or vernacular names, but general names such as rock
scorpion, bark scorpion, thick-tailed scorpion or burrowing scorpion are often used. These
common names may apply to many different species too, so the rock scorpion may refer to
three or four different types of Hadogenes species. Scorpion distributions are influenced
by climate and geology. For example, the distribution Parabuthus sp. is limited to areas
receiving less than 600mm of annual rainfall. This excludes most Parabuthus sp. from
the Waterberg region although they can occur in sparse populations at the edge of the
area and can subsequently be included here. Sometimes rainfall allows them to encroach
into marginal regions so there is a chance of encountering these dangerous species in
parts of the Bushveld. Lengths of scorpions are measured from the tip of the sting to the
front of the carapace. Many scorpions exhibit clinal variations of colouration and size. The
following descriptions are based on specimens from the Waterberg and surrounding areas,
but there may be huge variations in colour even within a fairly localised area.
The mating processes of scorpions are fascinating with some rather unique behaviour
taking place. Courtship is usually initiated by the male who often wanders around in the
warmer months actively looking for females. Evidence suggests that the female gives
off a pheromone that the male recognizes and responds to. Females remain near or in
their shelters which could be a burrow, a crevice, under bark or under a rock, depending
on the particular species. During this time males often inhabit temporary shelters not
normally associated with the species to which he belongs. When a male locates a female
he communicates his intentions through vibrations. He may judder his entire body, tap
his pincers or ever wag his tail. These actions produce vibrations that travel through the
substrate. Only after the male is sure that he has made his intentions known and the female
makes a positive response, will he approach her. Securing the female is imperative and
males of most genera have modified pincers on their pedipalps which are used to grasp the
female. The male may grasp the female by her pincers or, in some cases, males and females
lock mouthparts. Once the male has a firm grip on the female, he manoeuvres her to a
place where he can deposit his spermatophore.
The spermatophore is a container which holds the male's sperm. He fans out his pectines
(a pair of sensory, feather-like appendages below the body) to feel the substrate while
looking for a smooth hard place such as a rock, stone or branch to attach this spermatophore.
This part of courtship may last from five minutes to half an hour during which time the male can
move the female as much as 25 metres or more. Once the male has attached his spermatophore
to a suitable object, he has to position the female so that the hooks on top of the spermatophore
can catch into her genital opening.
After the male has deposited his spermatophore and he manoeuvres the
female into position over it, she may arch her body over the spermatophore, or the male
may lift her up and then literally drop her. At this time the female spreads the genital
opercula which normally cover her genital opening and the end of the spermatophore
enters her. The weight of the female bends the spermatophore and triggers the release of
sperm. She may remain motionless for a few minutes or just a few seconds. After sperm
uptake both male and female break away from each other, often violently. Either one may
club the other with its tailor even probe the other with its sting. The female may even try
to eat the smaller male at this point. After mating, the spermatophore may be eaten by the
male or the female. Males can mate more than once during mating season and can produce
another spermatophore in as little as six days.
Creepy crawlies
The Scorpiones-scorpions-are easily identified by the greatly enlarged, pincer-like
pedipalps and elongate-jointed abdomen which ends in a swollen sting. Antennae are
absent and the mouthparts are formed by small pincer-like chelicerae (fangs). There is a
central pair of dorsal eyes and two to five smaller lateral pairs of eyes on the front corner
of each side of the 'head'. There are four pairs of walking legs. These remarkable creatures
are among the most primitive groups of animals on the earth, with fossil scorpions up to
several metres long having been ,mong the dominant predators on the earth even before
the dinosaurs.
Many scorpions lack common or vernacular names, but general names such as rock
scorpion, bark scorpion, thick-tailed scorpion or burrowing scorpion are often used. These
common names may apply to many different species too, so the rock scorpion may refer to
three or four different types of Hadogenes species. Scorpion distributions are influenced
by climate and geology. For example, the distribution Parabuthus sp. is limited to areas
receiving less than 600mm of annual rainfall. This excludes most Parabuthus sp. from
the Waterberg region although they can occur in sparse populations at the edge of the
area and can subsequently be included here. Sometimes rainfall allows them to encroach
into marginal regions so there is a chance of encountering these dangerous species in
parts of the Bushveld. Lengths of scorpions are measured from the tip of the sting to the
front of the carapace. Many scorpions exhibit clinal variations of colouration and size. The
following descriptions are based on specimens from the Waterberg and surrounding areas,
but there may be huge variations in colour even within a fairly localised area.
The mating processes of scorpions are fascinating with some rather unique behaviour
taking place. Courtship is usually initiated by the male who often wanders around in the
warmer months actively looking for females. Evidence suggests that the female gives
off a pheromone that the male recognizes and responds to. Females remain near or in
their shelters which could be a burrow, a crevice, under bark or under a rock, depending
on the particular species. During this time males often inhabit temporary shelters not
normally associated with the species to which he belongs. When a male locates a female
he communicates his intentions through vibrations. He may judder his entire body, tap
his pincers or ever wag his tail. These actions produce vibrations that travel through the
substrate. Only after the male is sure that he has made his intentions known and the female
makes a positive response, will he approach her. Securing the female is imperative and
males of most genera have modified pincers on their pedipalps which are used to grasp the
female. The male may grasp the female by her pincers or, in some cases, males and females
lock mouthparts. Once the male has a firm grip on the female, he manoeuvres her to a
place where he can deposit his spermatophore.
The spermatophore is a container which holds the male's sperm. He fans out his pectines
(a pair of sensory, feather-like appendages below the body) to feel the substrate while
looking for a smooth hard place such as a rock, stone or branch to attach this spermatophore.
This part of courtship may last from five minutes to half an hour during which time the male can
move the female as much as 25 metres or more. Once the male has attached his spermatophore
to a suitable object, he has to position the female so that the hooks on top of the spermatophore
can catch into her genital opening.
After the male has deposited his spermatophore and he manoeuvres the
female into position over it, she may arch her body over the spermatophore, or the male
may lift her up and then literally drop her. At this time the female spreads the genital
opercula which normally cover her genital opening and the end of the spermatophore
enters her. The weight of the female bends the spermatophore and triggers the release of
sperm. She may remain motionless for a few minutes or just a few seconds. After sperm
uptake both male and female break away from each other, often violently. Either one may
club the other with its tailor even probe the other with its sting. The female may even try
to eat the smaller male at this point. After mating, the spermatophore may be eaten by the
male or the female. Males can mate more than once during mating season and can produce
another spermatophore in as little as six days.
03-16-2009, 01:05 PM
#7
Spike
Thread Starter
Join Date: Mar 2009
Location:
Posts: 18
RE: Survival Introduction
The following paragraphs expand on the meaning of each letter of the word survival. Study and remember what each letter signifies because you may some day have to make it work for you.
S -Size Up the Situation
Size Up Your Surroundings
Size Up Your Physical Condition
Size Up Your Equipment
Now that you have sized up your situation, surroundings, physical condition, and equipment, you are ready to make your survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind your basic physical needs--water, food, and shelter.
U -Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste
You may make a wrong move when you react quickly without thinking or planning. In your haste you may also become disoriented so that you don't know which way to go. Plan your moves. Be ready to move out quickly without endangering yourself. Use all your senses to evaluate the situation. Note sounds and smells. Be sensitive to temperature changes. Be observant.
R -Remember Where You Are
Spot your location on your map and relate it to the surrounding terrain. This is a basic principle that you must always follow. If there are other persons with you, make sure they also know their location. Always know who in your group, vehicle, or aircraft has a map and compass. If that person is injured, you will have to get the map and compass from him. Pay close attention to where you are and to where you are going. Do not rely on others in the group to keep track of the route. Constantly orient yourself. Always try to determine, as a minimum, how your location relates to the location of local water sources or basecamp.
V -Vanquish Fear and Panic
The greatest enemies in a survival and evasion situation are fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they can destroy your ability to make an intelligent decision. They may cause you to react to your feelings and imagination rather than to your situation. They can drain your energy and thereby cause other negative emotions. Previous survival and evasion training and self-confidence will enable you to vanquish fear and panic.
I -Improvise
There are items available for all our needs. Many of these items are cheap to replace when damaged. Our easy come, easy go, easy-to-replace culture makes it unnecessary for us to improvise. This inexperience in improvisation can be an enemy in a survival situation. Learn to improvise. Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see how many other uses you can make of it.
Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs. An example is using a rock for a hammer. No matter how complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear out after a while. Your imagination must take over when your kit wears out.
V -Value Living
All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but we have become used to the soft life. We have become creatures of comfort. We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. What happens when we are faced with a survival situation with its stresses, inconveniences, and discomforts? This is when the will to live- placing a high value on living-is vital. The experience and knowledge you have gained through life will have a bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a refusal to give in to problems and obstacles that face you, will give you the mental and physical strength to endure.
A -Act Like the Natives
The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their environment. To get a feel of the area, watch how the people go about their daily routine. When and what do they eat? When, where, and how do they get their food? When and where do they go for water?
Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to survive. Animals also require food, water, and shelter. By watching them, you can find sources of water and food.
WARNING
Animals cannot serve as an absolute guide to what you can eat and drink. Many animals eat plants that are toxic to humans.
One way you can gain rapport with the natives is to show interest in their tools and how they get food and water. By studying the people, you learn to respect them, you often make valuable friends, and, most important, you learn how to adapt to their environment and increase your chances of survival.
L -Live by Your Wits, But for Now, Learn Basic Skills
Without training in basic skills for surviving and evading on the battlefield, your chances of living through a combat survival and evasion situation are slight.
Learn these basic skills now. How you decide to equip yourself before deployment will impact on whether or not you survive. You need to know about the environment to which you are going, and you must practice basic skills geared to that environment. For instance, if you are going to a desert, you need to know how to get water in the desert.
Practice basic survival skills. Survival training reduces fear of the unknown and gives you self-confidence. It teaches you to live by your wits.
S - Size Up the Situation (Surroundings, Physical Condition, Equipment)
U - Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste
R - Remember Where You Are
V - Vanquish Fear and Panic
I - Improvise
V - Value Living
A - Act Like the Natives
L - Live by Your Wits, But for Now, Learn Basic Skills
S -Size Up the Situation
Size Up Your Surroundings
Size Up Your Physical Condition
Size Up Your Equipment
Now that you have sized up your situation, surroundings, physical condition, and equipment, you are ready to make your survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind your basic physical needs--water, food, and shelter.
U -Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste
You may make a wrong move when you react quickly without thinking or planning. In your haste you may also become disoriented so that you don't know which way to go. Plan your moves. Be ready to move out quickly without endangering yourself. Use all your senses to evaluate the situation. Note sounds and smells. Be sensitive to temperature changes. Be observant.
R -Remember Where You Are
Spot your location on your map and relate it to the surrounding terrain. This is a basic principle that you must always follow. If there are other persons with you, make sure they also know their location. Always know who in your group, vehicle, or aircraft has a map and compass. If that person is injured, you will have to get the map and compass from him. Pay close attention to where you are and to where you are going. Do not rely on others in the group to keep track of the route. Constantly orient yourself. Always try to determine, as a minimum, how your location relates to the location of local water sources or basecamp.
V -Vanquish Fear and Panic
The greatest enemies in a survival and evasion situation are fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they can destroy your ability to make an intelligent decision. They may cause you to react to your feelings and imagination rather than to your situation. They can drain your energy and thereby cause other negative emotions. Previous survival and evasion training and self-confidence will enable you to vanquish fear and panic.
I -Improvise
There are items available for all our needs. Many of these items are cheap to replace when damaged. Our easy come, easy go, easy-to-replace culture makes it unnecessary for us to improvise. This inexperience in improvisation can be an enemy in a survival situation. Learn to improvise. Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see how many other uses you can make of it.
Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs. An example is using a rock for a hammer. No matter how complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear out after a while. Your imagination must take over when your kit wears out.
V -Value Living
All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but we have become used to the soft life. We have become creatures of comfort. We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. What happens when we are faced with a survival situation with its stresses, inconveniences, and discomforts? This is when the will to live- placing a high value on living-is vital. The experience and knowledge you have gained through life will have a bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a refusal to give in to problems and obstacles that face you, will give you the mental and physical strength to endure.
A -Act Like the Natives
The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their environment. To get a feel of the area, watch how the people go about their daily routine. When and what do they eat? When, where, and how do they get their food? When and where do they go for water?
Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to survive. Animals also require food, water, and shelter. By watching them, you can find sources of water and food.
WARNING
Animals cannot serve as an absolute guide to what you can eat and drink. Many animals eat plants that are toxic to humans.
One way you can gain rapport with the natives is to show interest in their tools and how they get food and water. By studying the people, you learn to respect them, you often make valuable friends, and, most important, you learn how to adapt to their environment and increase your chances of survival.
L -Live by Your Wits, But for Now, Learn Basic Skills
Without training in basic skills for surviving and evading on the battlefield, your chances of living through a combat survival and evasion situation are slight.
Learn these basic skills now. How you decide to equip yourself before deployment will impact on whether or not you survive. You need to know about the environment to which you are going, and you must practice basic skills geared to that environment. For instance, if you are going to a desert, you need to know how to get water in the desert.
Practice basic survival skills. Survival training reduces fear of the unknown and gives you self-confidence. It teaches you to live by your wits.
S - Size Up the Situation (Surroundings, Physical Condition, Equipment)
U - Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste
R - Remember Where You Are
V - Vanquish Fear and Panic
I - Improvise
V - Value Living
A - Act Like the Natives
L - Live by Your Wits, But for Now, Learn Basic Skills
